Well, pull my string. I knew I wrote a good paper for this week’s first assignment, but I wasn’t expecting this:

WOW! This became really tough this week to pick out the SUPER POSTINGS. Many of you really kicked it up several notches and are getting into the SOARING phase early. I am impressed. But I can only pick one Super Posting for each DQ so here we go….

SUPER POSTING #1

This was the toughest to pick out of the lot. Several of you had excellent content and wonderful references. But Allison inched out in front and took the prize on this one! WAY TO GO, ALLISON!!! KEEP UP THE MOST EXCELLENT WORK!!!

“Most excellent,” huh? Why am I suddenly wanting to time travel in a phone booth with Keanu Reeves to have a chat with the “Freud dude?”

Anyway, yay me.

Writen for PSYC 6211
Contemporary Issues in Psychology
Dr. Geyer
June 10, 2009

Maladaptive adaptation: Biological/evolutionary perspectives on aggression

Since the beginning of life, adaptation to environment has allowed both humans and animals to evolve — to retain traits valuable for reproduction and survival. Many think of evolution only in terms of physical characteristics, but even Charles Darwin recognized that behavioral traits can also persist through generations (Weiten, 2008). Aggression, one such behavioral trait, endures and is common throughout the animal kingdom (Archer & Côté, 2005)(Couppis & Kennedy, 2008). Aggression has long given humans advantages. In large-scale groups, authoritarian aggression creates societal cohesion. People often prefer the restrictive, but familiar, climate of a punitive, authoritarian society, and choose well-known rules over personal freedom. Because of this, punitive societies not only do not shrink; they may thrive (Kessler & Cohrs, 2008). Outside of society, aggressive tendencies allow animals — more often, males — to find and keep mates, gain territory and resources, provide for offspring, fend off would-be intruders, and survive attacks (Archer & Côté, 2005). With such benefits, it’s not a surprise that aggression finds roots in biology, both in genetic makeup and in individuals’ own brain circuitry.

Don’t blame me; it’s my genes!
Fresnan, et al. (2007) showed that schizophrenic patients possessing the “novelty-seeking” gene (7R allele on DRD4) also had much stronger tendencies toward aggressive behavior than those without that gene. Low monoamine oxidase A activity has long been linked to antisocial behavior, enough so that MAOA is nicknamed the “warrior gene.” New research demonstrates that the link can even predict an individual’s likeliness both to join a gang and to use weapons in altercations (Beaver, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Barnes, in press).

Once an animal is genetically predisposed toward aggression, physiology ensures that they will remain so:

Aggression is addictive.
Aggressive behavior has been demonstrated to “light up” the nucleus accumbens (NAc), also known as the reward center of the brain. This flood of dopamine to the NAc is similar in nature to that experienced with drug and alcohol abuse (Couppis & Kennedy, 2008).

Aggression breeds aggression.
The initiation of violent behavior sparks a feedback loop. In cases of defensive aggression (protecting oneself from attack), the brain creates a feedback loop. While this flood of neurotransmitters likely developed to allowed animals to survive prolonged attacks, dopamine and norepinephrine not only allow protection, but make animals (including humans) more likely to initiate attacks in the future (Siegel, Bhatt, Bhatt, & Zalcman, 2007).

Aggression is habitual.
Research has shown that animals become accustomed to their “fix.” In one study, male rats from breeding pairs were exposed to an intruder at the same time each day for 10 days. By the 11th day, the NAc levels of dopamine rose even without the presence of the intruder rat (van Erp & Miczek, 2007).

Alcohol can stimulate aggression.
In a follow-on study, rats were allowed small amounts of alcohol at the same time each day. Eventually, the mice showed levels of DA neurotransmitter in the NAc elevated to 140% of baseline, even before alcohol was provided. These same rats exhibited noticeably higher levels of biting and aggression compared to non-drinking controls even when they were not drinking alcohol (van Erp & Miczek, 2007).

It does not take much of a leap to imagine how this plays out in today’s society. A man who becomes accustomed to arguments with his wife at the end of each work day eventually comes home fighting without additional provocation. The person who puts down every aspect of others’ behavior and appearance may genuinely make him/herself feel more powerful by an aggression-related release of neurochemicals. The high school student who experiences an ongoing dopamine and norepinephrine rush from abusive peers may well be chemically “triggered” to predatory, vindictive behavior after a time — and feel justified in doing so.

Fortunately, this same biological components that spark aggression help us understand how to decrease such behavior. Couppis and Kennedy (2008) found that by turning off the dopamine receptors in mice, they decreased attacking and biting behaviors in mice. Non-double-blind research hinted that clozapine (a dopamine antagonist) might be able to almost eliminate aggression; schizophrenic patients treated for 47 weeks showed a decrease of aggressiveness from 31.4% to 1.1% of the population without sedative or antipsychotic effect. Later formal research confirmed this possibility; clozapine’s moderation of aggression stood even in relation to the drug’s effect on other psychiatric symptoms (Siegel, Bhatt, Bhatt, & Zalcman, 2007).

There’s a reason aggression commonly exists in the animal kingdom; it serves a purpose when it is used judiciously for protection and the gathering of resources. But, society has changed with blinding rapidity over the past several hundred years compared to the preceding several billion, and the same inclinations toward aggression that were once beneficial are now often problematic. Because of the slow nature of evolution, behaviors such as aggression often endure long after a time when their presence has provided a definite advantage (Weiten, 2008). With an understanding aggression’s biological roots, we can learn to wield it as a tool for building society rather than as a weapon for tearing it down.

References

Archer, J., & Côté, S. (2005). Sex differences in aggressive behavior: A developmental and evolutionary perspective. In R. E. Tremblay, W. Hartup, & J. Archer (Ed.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 425-445). New York: Guilford Publications.

Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G., & Barnes, J. C. (in press). Monoamine oxidase A genotype is associated with gang membership and weapon use. Comprehensive Psychiatry (2009). Retrieved June 10, 2009, from Science Direct database, doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.03.010.

Couppis, M., & Kennedy, C. (2008). The rewarding effect of aggression is reduced by nucleus accumbens dopamine receptor antagonism in mice. Psychopharmacology, 197(3), 449-456. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

Fresan, A., Camarena, B., Apiquian, R., Aguilar, A., Urraca, N., & Nicolini, H. (2007). Association study of MAO-A and DRD4 genes in schizophrenic patients with aggressive behavior. Neuropsychobiology, 55(3/4), 171-175. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

Kessler, T., & Cohrs, J. (2008). The evolution of authoritarian processes: Fostering cooperation in large-scale groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 12(1), 73-84. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from PsycARTICLES database.

Siegel, A., Bhatt, S., Bhatt, R., & Zalcman, S. (2007). The neurobiological bases for development of pharmacological treatments of aggressive disorders. Current Neuropharmacology, 5(2), 135-147. Retrieved June6, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

van Erp, A., & Miczek, K. (2007). Increased accumbal dopamine during daily alcohol consumption and subsequent aggressive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology, 191(3), 679-688. Retrieved June 6, 2009, Academic Search Premier database.

Weiten, W. (2008). Psychology: Themes and variations. Briefer version. (7th ed.). Belmont, California: Thomson Higher Education.

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